Zones of concentrated deformation (flower structures): field observations and modeling data

Our study was focused on narrow linear zones that penetrate to different depths the crust and have complex infrastructure. Rocks in such zones are more intensively tectonically altered in comparison with the background. ‘Flower structures’ and ‘zones of concentrated deformation’ (ZCD) are the terms to describe these zones. The field study results combined with the data of tectonophysical and computational modeling data and supplemented by the literature analysis gave grounds for the following conclusions. In the experiments, as well as in nature, ZCDs show similar and, in some cases, identical morphological and infrastructural features and have similar stages of their evolution. A ZCD is mainly a reflection of the transpression setting. Its formation is accompanied by 3D plastic shear flow of matter and dilatancy of the deformed volume. A ZCD may be associated with the development of the ‘basement – cover’ system. It may also occur due to the intra-cover tectogenesis that does not influence the basement. Locations of ZCDs are spatially regular and predetermine the tectonic divisibility of the crust and lithosphere.

1. Alvarez P., Maurin J.C., 1991. Evolution sédimentaire et tectonique du bassin protérozoïque supérieur de Comba (Congo): Stratigraphie séquentielle du Supergroupe Ouest-Congolien et modèle d'amortissement sur décrochements dans le contexte de la tectogénèse panafricaine. Precambrian Research 50 (1–2), 137–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(91)90051-B.

2. Atmaoui N., Kukowski N., Stöckhert B., König D., 2006. Initiation and development of pull-apart basins with Riedel shear mechanism: Insights from scaled clay experiments. International Journal of Earth Sciences 95 (2), 225–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-005-0030-1.

3. Azhgirey G.D., 1960.On some important regularities of the tectonic structure and movement of the crust. Izvestiya AN SSSR, Geological Series (8), 3–18 (in Russian).

4. Bachmanov D.M., Trifonov V.G., Mikolaichuk A.V., Vishnyakov F.A., Zarshchikov A.A., 2008. The Ming-Kush-Kökömeren zone of recent transpression in the Middle Tien Shan. Geotectonics 42 (3), 186–205. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016852108030035.

5. Bondarenko P.M., 1991. Modeling of stress fields and forecasting of dislocations in shear zones and their systematics. In: Yu.M. Pushcharovsky, P.S. Voronov (Eds.), Shear tectonic faults and their role in the formation of mineral deposits. Nauka, Moscow, p. 19–21 (in Russian).

6. Chemenda A.I., Cavalié O., Vergnolle M., Bouissou S., Delouis B., 2016. Numerical model of formation of a 3-D strike-slip fault system. Comptes Rendus Geoscience 348 (1), 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2015.09.008.

7. Chikov B.M., 2011. Introduction to Physical Foundations of Static and Dynamic Geotectonics. Geo, Novosibirsk, 300 p. (in Russian).

8. Chikov B.M., Lin Ge, 1995. Tectonics of the Indosinian collision belt (Southeast Asia). Geologiya i Geofizika (Russian Geology and Geophysics) 36 (12), 3–16 (in Russian).

9. Chikov B.M., Zinoviev S.V., Deyev E.V., 2008. Mesozoic and Cenozoic collisional structures of the southern Great Altai. Russian Geology and Geophysics 49 (5), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rgg.2007.09.013.

10. Cunningham D., 2010. Tectonic setting and structural evolution of the Late Cenozoic Gobi Altai orogen. In: T.M. Kusky, M.-G. Zhai, W. Xiao (Eds.), The evolving continents: understanding processes of continental growth. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, vol. 338, p. 361–387. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP338.17.

11. Cunningham W.D., Windley B.F., Dorjnamjaa D., Badamgarov J., Saandar M., 1996. Late Cenozoic transpression in southwestern Mongolia and the Gobi Altai-Tien Shan connection. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 140 (1–4), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(96)00048-9.

12. Dejidmaa G., Badarch G., 2005. Summary of pre-accretionary and accretionary metallogenic belts of Mongolia. In: R. Seltmann, O. Gerel, D. Kirvin (Eds.), Geodynamics and metallogeny of Mongolia with special emphasis on copper and gold deposits. CERCAMS, London, p. 25–30.

13. Dellmes K.F., 1961. The main features of the basin development in connection with oil occurrence. In: I.O. Brod, V.B. Olenin (Eds.), Oil occurrence. Gostoptekhizdat, Moscow, p. 634–671 (in Russian).

14. Dergunova A.B. (Ed.), 1995. Geological Formations of Mongolia. Proceedings of the Joint Russian-Mongolian Scientific Research Geological Expedition. Issue 55. Shag, Moscow, 179 p. (in Russian).

15. Dobretsov N.L., Kirdyashkin A.G., Kirdyashkin A.A., 2001. Deep Geodynamics. Siberian Branch of RAS Publishing House, Geo Branch, Novosibirsk, 408 p. (in Russian).

16. Dooley T.P., Schreurs G., 2012. Analogue modelling of intraplate strike-slip tectonics: A review and new experimental results. Tectonophysics 574–575, 1–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.05.030.

17. Dovzhikov A.E., 1977. Tectonics of the Southern Tien Shan. Nedra, Moscow, 170 p. (in Russian).

18. Drucker D.C., Prager W., 1975. Soil mechanics and plastic analysis or limit design. In: Mechanics. New in foreign science. Issue 2. Determining laws of soil mechanics. Mir, Moscow, p. 166–177 (in Russian).

19. Florensov N.A., Solonenko V.P. (Eds.), 1963. The Gobi-Altai Earthquake. Publishing House of Academy of Sciences of USSR, Moscow, 391 p. (in Russian).

20. Gogonenkov G.N., Kashik A.S., Timursiyev A.I., 2007. Horizontal displacements of West Siberia's basement. Geologiya Nefti i Gaza (Oil and Gas Geology) (3), 3–18 (in Russian).

21. Gol’din S.V., 2002. Destruction of the lithosphere and physical mesomechanics. Fizicheskaya Mezomekhanika 5 (5), 5–22 (in Russian).

22. Hancock P.L., 1985. Brittle microtectonics: principles and practice. Journal of Structural Geology 7 (3–4), 437–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(85)90048-3.

23. Harding T.P., 1985. Seismic characteristics and identification of negative flower structures, positive flower structures, and positive structural inversion. AAPG Bulletin 69 (4), 582–600.

24. Harland W.B., 1971. Tectonic transpression in caledonian Spitsbergen. Geological Magazine 108 (1), 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016756800050937.

25. Kovalenko V.I., Yarmolyuk V.V., 1990. Evolution of Geological Processes and Metallogeny of Mongolia. Nauka, Moscow, 240 p. (in Russian).

26. Leonov M.G., 1996. Phanerozoic geodynamic regimes of the Southern Tien Shan. Geotectonics 30 (3), 200–216.

27. Leonov M.G., 2008. Tectonics of the Consolidated Crust. Nauka, Moscow, 462 p. (in Russian).

28. Leonov M.G., 2012a. Granite protrusions and associated clastites as real and potential reservoirs of hydrocarbons. In: Leningrad School of Lithology. Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Vol. 2, p. 165–167 (in Russian).

29. Leonov M.G., 2012b. Within-plate zones of concentrated deformation: Tectonic structure and evolution. Geotectonics 46 (6), 389–411. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016852112060052.

30. Leonov M.G., 2013a. Intermountain cavities of Gissar-Alay region (Tien Shan): structure and evolution. Litosfera (Lithosphere) (3), 3–24 (in Russian).

31. Leonov M.G. (Ed.), 2013b. Lateral Tectonic Flows in the Lithosphere of the Earth. GEOS, Moscow, 318 p. (in Russian).

32. Leonov M.G., 2014. The Pieniny klippen belt: its tectonic structure and evolution. Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 5 (3), 703–715 (in Russian). https://doi.org/10.5800/GT-2014-5-3-0150.

33. Leonov M.G., Bakeev R.A., Yu.A., Morozov Yu.A., Przhiyalgovsky E.S., Stefanov Yu.P., Tataurova A.A., 2017a. Tectonic differentiation of sedimentary basins (statement of the problem and ways of solution). In: Geodynamic evolution of the lithosphere of the Central Asian mobile belt (from ocean to continent). Issue 15. IEC SB RAS, Irkutsk, p. 165–168 (in Russian).

34. Leonov M.G., Kolodyazhny S.Yu., Solovjov A.Yu., 1995. Plastic deformation and metamorphism. Geotektonika (Geotectonics) (2), 29–48 (in Russian).

35. Leonov M.G., Morozov Yu.A., Stefanov Yu.P., Bakeev R.A., 2017b. The Naryn basin – Baibichetoo ridge – Atbash depression system as a reflection of the geodynamic evolution of sedimentary basins (geological, tectonophysical and computational modeling data). In: Problems of geodynamics and geoecology of intracontinental orogens. Abstracts of the VII International Symposium. Research Station of RAS, Bishkek, p. 37–39 (in Russian).

36. Leonov M.G., Przhiyalgovsky E.S., Lavrushina E.V., 2018. Granites. Postmagmatic Tectonics and Hydrocarbon Potential. GEOS, Moscow, 331 p. (in Russian).

37. Leonov М.G., Rybin А.К., Batalev V.Yu., Bataleva Е.А., Niatukov V.Е., Shchelochkov G.G., 2017c. Gissar-Alay and Pamirs. Comparative Tectonics and Geodynamics. GEOS, Moscow, 132 р. (in Russian).

38. Lobkovsky L.I., 1988. Geodynamics of Zones of Spreading and Subduction and Two-Level Plate Tectonics. Nauka, Moscow, 251 p. (in Russian).

39. Luchitsky I.V., Bondarenko P.M., 1967. Tectonic modeling in the artificial magnetic field. Doklady AN SSSR 174 (5), 1173–1176 (in Russian).

40. Morozov Y.A., 1999. The role of transpression in the structural evolution of the Svecokarelides in the Baltic Shield. Geotectonics 33 (4), 302–313.

41. Morozov Y.A., 2001. The structure and kinematic evolution of the Urals – Southern Tien Shan (Sultan-Uvais Range) junction region. Geotectonics 35 (6), 449–470.

42. Morozov Y.A., 2002. Structure-formation function of transpression and transtension. Geotectonics 36 (6), 431–450.

43. Morozov Y.A., Geptner T.M., 1997. Comparison of natural and experimentally reconstructed structural ensembles formed under transpression and transtension. In: V.N. Sholpo (Ed.), Problems of the evolution of tectonosphere. UIEP, Moscow, p. 219–258 (in Russian).

44. Morozov Y.A., Leonov M.G., Alekseev D.V., 2014. Pull-apart formation mechanism of Cenozoic basins in the Tien Shan and their transpressional evolution: Structural and experimental evidence. Geotectonics 48 (1), 24–53. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016852114010051.

45. Morozov Y.A., Talitskii V.G., 2006. The Kyrgyz-Ata Synform in the South Tien Shan: Structural and kinematic aspects of its evolution. Geotectonics 40 (1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016852106010043.

46. Nikolaevskii V.N., 1971. Governing equations of plastic deformation of a granular medium. Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics 35 (6), 1017–1029. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-8928(71)90106-7.

47. Porras J.S., Ferro C.E., Castillo C.E., Machado V.I., Ochoa L.A., Chirinos N.E., Perez F., 2007. Fractured basement: new exploratory target in La Concepción Field, Western Venezuela. In: AAPG Annual Convention and Exhibition, Search and Discovery Article #10140.

48. Przhiyalgovskii E.S., Leonov M.G., Lavrushina E.V., 2011. Granite protrusions in zones of intraplate activization of South Mongolia. Doklady Earth Sciences 440 (2), 1359–1362. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1028334X11100059.

49. Przhiyalgovsky E.S., Lavrushina E.V., Leonov M.G., 2016. Deformations of the Cenozoic cover and the roof of the Paleozoic basement in the southern side of the Chuya basin (Northern Tien Shan). In: Tectonics, geodynamics and oreogenesis of fold belts and platforms. Materials of the XLVIII Tectonic Meeting. GEOS, Moscow, Vol. 2, p. 87–92 (in Russian).

50. Przhiyalgovsky E.S., Leonov M.G., Lavrushina E.V., 2014. Granitic protrusions in the structure of intraplate reactivation, southern Mongolia. Geotectonics 48 (3), 207–231. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016852114030054.

51. Ramsay J.G., Huber M., 1987. The Techniques of Modern Structural Geology. V. 2. Folds and Fractures. Academic Press, London, 391 p.

52. Rastsvetaev L.M., 1973. Some features of the Late Alpine structure of the orogenic areas in the southern regions of the USSR and the tectonic stresses of modern times. In: K.K. Markov, N.I. Nikolaev (Eds.), Modern tectonics, recent deposits and man. Issue 5. MSU Publishing House, Moscow, p. 57–107 (in Russian).

53. Rastsvetaev L.M., 1977. Mountainous Crimea and Northern Black Sea coast. In: A.I. Suvorov (Ed.), Faults and horizontal movements of mountain structures of the USSR. Nauka, Moscow, p. 95–113 (in Russian).

54. Rastsvetaev L.M., 2002. On some topical problems of structural geology and tectonophysics. In: V.N. Strakhov, Yu.G. Leonov (Eds.), Tectonophysics today. UIEP RAS, Moscow, p. 333–373 (in Russian).

55. Sanderson D.J., Marchini W.R.D., 1984. Transpression. Journal of Structural Geology 6 (5), 449–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(84)90058-0.

56. Shvanov V.N., 1983. Lithophatic Correlations of Terrigenous and Metamorphic Strata of the Southern Tien Shan. Leningrad State University, Leningrad, 215 p. (in Russian).

57. Somin M.L., 2000. Structures of arcade type in fold belts. In: General problems of tectonics. Tectonics of Russia. GEOS, Moscow, p. 254–356 (in Russian).

58. Stefanov Y.P., 2002. Localization of deformation and destruction in geomaterials. Numerical simulation. Fizicheskaya Mezomekhanika 5 (5), 107–118 (in Russian).

59. Stefanov Y.P., 2005. Some features of numerical simulation of the behavior of elastic-brittle-plastic materials. Fizicheskaya Mezomekhanika 8 (3), 129–142 (in Russian).

60. Stefanov Y.P., 2008. Numerical modeling of deformation and failure of sandstone specimens. Journal of Mining Science 44 (1), 64–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10913-008-0006-1.

61. Stefanov Y.P., Bakeev R.A., 2014a. Deformation and fracture structures in strike-slip faulting. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 129, 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2014.05.019.

62. Stefanov Y.P., Bakeev R.A., 2014b. Effect of the rock properties on the strike-slip fault structure. AIP Conference Proceedings 1623, 615–618. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4899020.

63. Stefanov Y.P., Bakeev R.A., 2015. Formation of flower structures in a geological layer at a strike-slip displacement in the basement. Izvestiya, Physics of the Solid Earth 51 (4), 535–547. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1069351315040114.

64. Stefanov Y.P., Bakeev R.A., Rebetsky Y.L., Kontorovich V.A., 2014. Structure and formation stages of a fault zone in a geomedium layer in strike-slip displacement of the basement. Physical Mesomechanics 17 (3), 204–215. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1029959914030059.

65. Stefanov Y.P., Bakeev R.A., Smolin I.Y., 2009. Patterns of deformation localization in horizontal layers of a medium at shear displacement of the base. Fizicheskaya Mezomekhanika (Physical Mesomechanics) 12 (1), 83–88 (in Russian).

66. Sylvester A.G., 1988. Strike-slip faults. Geological Society of America Bulletin 100 (11), 1666–1703. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1988)100<1666:SSF>2.3.CO;2.

67. Timurziev A.I., 2006. Mechanisms and structures of hidden explosive discharge of deep fluids in the basement and the upper crust. In: Hydrocarbon potential of the foundation of young and ancient platforms: oil and gas potential of the foundation and the assessment of its role in the formation and reorganization of petroleum fields. Materials of the International Scientific Conference. KSU Publishing House, Kazan, p. 262–268 (in Russian).

68. Timurziev A.I., 2009. Modern Shear Tectonics of Sedimentary Basins: Tectonophysical and Fluid Dynamics Aspects (in Connection with Oil and Gas Content). Brief PhD Thesis (Doctor of Geology and Mineralogy). Moscow State University, Moscow, 40 p. (in Russian).

69. Timurziev A.I., 2010. Development of Sylvester’s “Flower Models” concept using new kinematical model of tectonic faults. Geofizika (Geophysics) (2), 24–33 (in Russian).

70. Timurziev A.I., 2014. Deep ‘foundation oil’ of West Siberia – the actual status and development alternatives. Deep Oil 2 (12), 1951–1972 (in Russian).

71. Tomurtogoo О., 2005. Tectonics and evolution of Mongolia. In: R. Seltmann, O. Gerel, D. Kirvin (Eds.), Geodynamics and Metallogeny of Mongolia with special emphasis on copper and gold deposits. CERCAMS, London, p. 5–10.

72. Woodcock N., Fischer V., 1986. Strike-slip duplexes. Journal of Structural Geology 8 (7), 725–735. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(86)90021-0.

73. Yarmolyuk V.V., 2010. Late Paleozoic rifting and problems of batholith formation in Central Asia. In: Geodynamic evolution of the lithosphere of the Central Asian mobile belt (from ocean to continent). Issue 8. IEC SB RAS, Irkutsk, p. 158–159 (in Russian).

74. Zaitsev N.S., Zonenshayn L.P., Markova N.G. et al., 1974. Tectonics of Mongolia. In: M.V. Muratov (Ed.), Tectonics of the Ural-Mongolian fold belt. Nauka, Moscow, p. 125–138 (in Russian).