SPECIALIZED MAPPING OF CRUSTAL FAULT ZONES. PART 2: MAIN STAGES AND PROSPECTS

The article is to complete the description of the special mapping method which theoretical basis and principles were published in [Seminsky, 2014]. With reference to data on the Ulirba site located in Priolkhonie (Western Pribaikalie), the content of special mapping is reviewed in detail. The method is based on paragenetical analysis of abundant jointing which specific feature is the lack of any visible displacement indicators. There are three stages in the special mapping method (Fig. 3) as follows:

Stage I: Preparation and analysis of previously published data on the regional fault structure (Fig. 1, А–Г), establishment of a networks of stations to conduct structural geological monitoring and mass measurements of joints, re­cord of rock data (Fig. 2, А), general state of the fault network (Fig. 1, Д–З), fracture density (Fig. 2, Б) and, if any, structures of the above-jointing level (Fig. 1, Е, З; Fig. 2, А).

Stage II is aimed at processing of field data and includes activities in four groups (II.1–II.4) as follows: Group II.1: construction of circle diagrams, specification of characteristics of joint systems and their typical scatters (Fig. 4, А), identification of simple (generally tipple) paragenesises, and determination of dynamic settings of their formation (translocal rank) (Table 1), evaluation of densities and complexity of the joint networks, analysis of their spacial patterns within the site under mapping, and identification of the most intensively destructed zones in the rock massif (Fig. 2, Б–В). Group II.2: comparison of jointing diagrams with reference ones showing joint poles (Fig. 4, Б–В; Е–З; Л–Н), and, in case of their satisfactory correlation, making a conclusion of potential formation of a specific joint pattern in the local zone of strike-slip, normal faulting or reverse faulting (Fig. 4,  Г–Д, И–К, О–П; Fig. 5; Fig. 7, Б), and determination of relative age relationships between such zones on the basis analysis of the scatter of joint systems, shearing angles and other relevant information. Group II.3: construction of a circle diagram for the specified mapping site with local fault poles (Fig. 8, Б), identification of conjugated systems and dynamic settings of their formation (Fig. 2), plotting the information onto the schematic map of the location under study, and marking the transregional fault zones (Fig. 7, В–К) with observation sites showing similar settings and paragenesises of local faults. Group II.4: comparison between diagrams of fault poles of local ranks with reference patterns selected according to the availability of conjugated pairs of fractures (Fig. 9, Б–Г); based on the above comparison, decision making on potential formation of a paragenesis of local faults in the strike-slip, normal and reserve/thrust fault zones (Fig. 9, Д–Ж), and delineation of boundaries of such zones in the schematic map by connecting the observation sites with similar solutions (Fig. 7, Л–Н).

Stage III is aimed at interpreting and includes comprehensive analyses of mapping results and priori information, construction of a final scheme of the fault zones showing their subordination by ranks (Fig. 7, О) and schemes of fault zones for various structure formation stages, showing types of faults and specific features of their internal patterns, i.e. definition of the peripheral sub-zone, sub-zones of fractures of the 2nd order and, if established, the sub-zone of the major fault (Fig. 7, Л–Н).

Prospects of the special mapping method can be highlighted upon its comparison with the conventional structural methods applied in studies of faults. On the one side, the method requires time-consuming mass mea­surements and special processing of 'dumb' joints; on the other side, it provides for analyses of abundant jointing data, ensures a high level of detail in mapping of patterns of fault zones, reveals rank subordination of faults and helps to determine other specific features of fractures and faults. Hence, a conventional study of sites with evident tectonics can be based on traditional structural methods, while the special mapping method is recommendable as an additional means of analyses providing information on specific elements of the fault patterns, including establishment of the internal zoning of faults, hierarchy of dynamic settings of faulting etc. In cases when direct observation of faults is limited as the study area is poorly outcropped, or in case of specialized studies such as drilling of wells, the special mapping method can be most useful when applied in its full scope.

With account of its specific features, this method is a promising tool for solution of theoretical problems related to studies of divisibility of the Earth's crust into zones and blocks and researches of regularities in development of fault zones in space and time. It can be useful for application-oriented surveys in geology, ore geology, engineering geology and hydrogeology that require detailed mapping of fault zones controlling many associated processes of key importance.

1. Agosta F., Alessandroni M., Antonellini M., Tondi E., Giorgioni M., 2010a. From fractures to flow: A field-based quantitative analysis of an outcropping carbonate reservoir. Tectonophysics 490 (3–4), 197–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2010.05.005.

2. Agosta F., Alessandroni M., Tondi E., Aydin A., 2010b. Oblique normal faulting along the northern edge of the Majella Anticline, Central Italy: Inferences on hydrocarbon migration and accumulation. Journal of Structural Geology 32 (9), 1317–1333. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2010.10.007.

3. Aleksandrov V.K., 1990. Thrust and Overthrust Structures in the Pribaikalie. Nauka, Novosibirsk, 102 p. (in Russian) [Александров В.К. Надвиговые и шарьяжные структуры Прибайкалья. Новосибирск: Наука, 1990. 102 с.].

4. Billi A., Salvini F., Storti F., 2003. The damage zone-fault core transition in carbonate rocks: implications for fault growth, structure and permeability. Journal of Structural Geology 25 (11), 1779–1794. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S0191-8141(03)00037-3.

5. Burzunova Yu.P., 2014. Fracture systems in rocks in tectonically active regions: assessment of randomness degrees. Vestnik IrGTU (4 (87)), 45–49 (in Russian) [Бурзунова Ю.П. Трещинные сети в породах тектонически активных регионов: оценка степени хаотичности // Вестник ИрГТУ. 2014. № 4 (87). С.45–49].

6. Burzunova Yu.P., 2015. Fault zones of the Tazheran syenite massif (Western Pribaikalie) according to results of structural paragenetical analyses of fracturing. Izvestiya Sibirskogo otdeleniya Sektsii nauk o Zemle RAEN. Geologiya, Poiski i Razvedka Rudnykh Mestorozhdeniy (1(45)) (in press(in Russian) [Бурзунова Ю.П. Разломные зоны Тажеранского массива сиенитов (Западное Прибайкалье) по результатам структурно-парагенетического анализа трещиноватости // Известия Сибирского отделения Секции наук о Земле РАЕН. Геология, поиски и разведка рудных месторождений. 2015. № 1 (45) (в печати)].

7. Caine J.S., Bruhn R.L., Forster C.B., 2010. Internal structure, fault rocks, and inferences regarding deformation, fluid flow, and mineralization in the seismogenic Stillwater normal fault, Dixie Valley, Nevada. Journal of Structural Geology 32 (11), 1576–1589. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2010.03.004.

8. Cello G., Gambini R., Mazzoli S., Read A., Tondi E., Zucconi V., 2000. Fault zone characteristics and scaling properties of the Val d'Agri Fault System (Southern Apennines, Italy). Journal of Geodynamics 29 (3), 293–307. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/S0264-3707(99)00043-5.

9. Cheremnykh А.V. 2010. Internal structures of fault zones in Priolkhonie and evolution of the state of stresses of the upper crust of the Baikal rift. Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 1 (3), 273–284 (in Russian) [Черемных А.В. Внутренняя структура разломных зон Приольхонья и эволюция напряженного состояния верхней коры Байкальского рифта // Геодинамика и тектонофизика. 2010. Т. 1. № 3. С. 273–284]. http://dx.doi.org/10. 5800/GT-2010-1-3-0021.

10. Chernyshev S.N., 1983. Rock Fractures. Nauka, Moscow, 240 p. (in Russian) [Чернышев С.Н. Трещины горных пород. М.: Наука, 1983. 240 с.].

11. Danilovich V.N., 1963. Arcogenic type of thrusts. Russian Geology and Geophysics (2), 5–12 (in Russian) [Данилович В.Н. Аркогенный тип надвигов // Геология и геофизика. 1963. № 2. С. 5–12].

12. Delvaux D., Moeys R., Stapel G., Melnikov A., Ermikov V., 1995. Paleostress reconstructions and geodynamics of the Baikal region, Central Asia. Part I: Palaeozoic and Mesozoic pre-rift evolution. Tectonophysics 252 (1), 61–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(95)00090-9.

13. Delvaux D., Moyes R., Stapel G., Petit C., Levi K., Miroshnitchenko А., Ruzhich V., San'kov V., 1997. Paleostress reconstruction and geodynamics of the Baikal region, Central Asia. Part II: Cenozoic rifting. Tectonophysics 282 (1), 1–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(97)00210-2.

14. Doser D.I., 1991. Faulting within the Eastern Baikal rift as characterized by earthquake studies. Tectonophysics 196 (1), 109–139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(91)90292-Z.

15. Fedorovsky V.S., 1997. Dome tectonics in the Caledonian collision system of the Western Pribaikalie. Geotectonics 31 (6), 483–497 (in Russian) [Федоровский В.С. Купольный тектогенез в коллизионной системе каледонид Западного Прибайкалья // Геотектоника. 1997. № 6. С. 56–71].

16. Guerriero V., Iannace A., Mazzoli S., Parente M., Vitale S., Giorgioni M., 2010. Quantifying uncertainties in multi-scale studies of fractured reservoir analogues: Implemented statistical analysis of scan line data from carbonate rocks. Journal of Structural Geology 32 (9), 1271–1278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2009.04.016.

17. Knorring L.D., 1969. Mathematical Methods in Studies of Tectonic Fracturing Mechanism. Nedra, Leningrad, 87 p. (in Russian) [Кнорринг Л.Д. Математические методы при изучении механизма образования тектонической трещиноватости. Л.: Недра, 1969. 87 с.].

18. Korolev A.V., Shekhtman P.A., 1954. Postmagmatic Ore Bodies and Methods of Their Geological Analysis. Gosgeoltekhizdat, Moscow, 376 p. (in Russian) [Королев А.В., Шехтман П.А. Постмагматические рудные тела и методы их геологического анализа. М.: Госгеолтехиздат, 1954. 376 с.].

19. Kreiter V.M., 1956. Structures of Ore Fields and Deposits. Gosnauchtekhizdat, Moscow, 272 p. (in Russian) [Крейтер В.М. Структуры рудных полей и месторождений. М.: Госнаучтехиздат, 1956. 272 с.

20. Levi К.G., Arzhannikova А.V., Buddo V.Yu., Kirillov P.G., Lukhnev А.V., Miroshnichenko А.I., Ruzhitch V.V., San'kov V.А., 1997. Recent geodynamics of the Baikal rift. Razvedka i okhrana nedr (1), 10–20 (in Russian) [Леви К.Г., Аржанникова А.В., Буддо В.Ю., Кириллов П.Г., Лухнев А.В., Мирошниченко А.И., Ружич В.В., Саньков В.А. Современная геодинамика Байкальского рифта // Разведка и охрана недр. 1997. № 1. С. 10–20].

21. Logatchev N.A., Zorin Yu.A., 1992. Baikal rift zone: structure and geodynamics. Tectonophysics 208 (1), 273–286. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(92)90349-B.

22. Loke M.H., 2010. Tutorial. RES2DINV ver. 3.59, Rapid 2-D Resistivity & IP inversion using the least-squares method. Geotomo Software, Malaysia. 148 р.

23. Lunina O.V., Gladkov A.S., Cheremnykh A.V., 2002. Fracturing in the Primorsky fault zone (Baikal rift system). Geologiya i Geofizika (Russian Geology and Geophysics) 43 (5), 446–455 (in Russian) [Лунина О.В., Гладков А.С., Черемных А.В. Разрывная структура и трещиноватость зоны Приморского разлома (Байкальская рифтовая система) // Геология и геофизика. 2002. Т. 43. № 5. С. 446–455].

24. Mats V.D., 1993. The structure and development of the Baikal rift depression. Earth-Science Reviews 34 (2), 81–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(93)90028-6.

25. Matthaii S.K., 2003. Fluid flow and (reactive) transport in fractured and faulted rock. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 78–79, 179–182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0375-6742(03)00094-3.

26. Mazukabzov А.М., Sizykh V.I., 1987. On the overburden lamellar structure of the Western Pribaikalie. Geotektonika (3), 87–90 (in Russian) [Мазукабзов А.М., Сизых В.И. О покровно-чешуйчатом строении Западного Прибайкалья // Геотектоника. 1987. № 3. С. 87–90].

27. Melnikova V.I., Radziminovich N.A., 1998. Mechanisms of action of earthquake foci in the Baikal region over the period 1991–1996. Geologiya i Geofizika 39 (11), 1598–1607.

28. Mikhailov А.Е., 1984. Structural Geology and Geological Mapping. Nedra, Moscow, 464 p. (in Russian) [Михайлов А.Е. Структурная геология и геологическое картирование. М.: Недра, 1984. 464 с.].

29. Multi-electrode electric survey station Skala-48 for works using the method of resistance and induced polarization. User Guidebook, 2010. INGG, SB RAS, Novosibirsk, 46 p. (in Russian) [Многоэлектродная электроразведочная станция «Скала-48» для работы методом сопротивлений и вызванной поляризации. Руководство пользователя. Новосибирск: ИНГГ СО РАН, 2010. 46 с.].

30. Nikolaev P.N., 1992. Tectonodynamic Analysis Method. Nedra, Moscow, 295 p. (in Russian) [Николаев П.Н. Методика тектонодинамического анализа. М.: Недра, 1992. 295 с.].

31. Nikolya A., 1992. Fundamentals of Rock Deformation. Mir, Moscow, 167 p. (in Russian) [Николя А. Основы деформации горных пород. М.: Мир, 1992. 167 с.].

32. Oliver N.H.S., 2001. Linking of regional and local hydrothermal systems in the mid-crust by shearing and faulting. Tectonophysics 335 (1), 147–161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(01)00054-3.

33. Rats M.V., Chernyshev S.N., 1970. Fracturing and Properties of Fractured Rocks. Nedra, Moscow, 164 p. (in Russian) [Рац М.В., Чернышев С.Н. Трещиноватость и свойства трещиноватых горных пород. М.: Недра, 1970. 164 с.].

34. San'kov V.A., Miroshnitchenko A.I., Levi K.G., Lukhnev A.V., Melnikov A.I., Delvaux D., 1997. Cenozoic stress field evolution in the Baikal rift zone. Bulletin du Centre de Recherches Elf Exploration Production 21 (2), 435–455.

35. Schulz S.E., Evans J.P., 2000. Mesoscopic structure of the Punchbowl Fault, Southern California and the geologic and geophysical structure of active strike-slip faults. Journal of Structural Geology 22 (7), 913–930. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/S0191-8141(00)00019-5.

36. Seminskii K.Zh., Radziminovich Ya.B., 2011. Cross-sectional sizes and lateral zonality of the Baikal seismic belt. Doklady Earth Sciences 438 (1), 645–648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/S1028334X11050084.

37. Seminsky K.Zh., 1994. Principles and stages of specialized mapping of fault-block structures based on studies of fracturing. Geologiya i Geofizika 35 (9), 112–130 (in Russian) [Семинский К.Ж. Принципы и этапы спецкартирования разломно-блоковой структуры на основе изучения трещиноватости // Геология и геофизика. 1994. Т. 35. № 9. С. 112–130].

38. Seminsky K.Zh., 2003. The Internal Structure of Continental Fault Zones. Tectonophysical Aspect. GEO Branch, Publishing House of SB RAS, Novosibirsk, 243 p. (in Russian) [Семинский К.Ж. Внутренняя структура континентальных разломных зон. Тектонофизический аспект. Новосибирск: Изд-во СО РАН, филиал «Гео», 2003. 243 с.].

39. Seminsky K.Zh., 2014. Specialized mapping of crustal fault zones. Part 1: Basic theoretical concepts and principles. Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 5 (2), 445–467 (in Russian) [Семинский К.Ж. Спецкартирование разломных зон земной коры. Статья 1: Теоретические основы и принципы // Геодинамика и тектонофизика. 2014. Т. 5. № 2. С. 445–467]. http://dx.doi.org/10.5800/GT-2014-5-2-0136.

40. Seminsky K.Z., Bobrov A.A., Demberel S., 2014. Variations in radon activity in the crustal fault zones: Spatial characteristics. Izvestiya, Physics of the Solid Earth 50 (6), 795–813. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/S1069351314060081.

41. Seminsky K.Zh., Cheremnykh A.V., 2011. Jointing patterns and stress tensors in Cenozoic sediments of the Baikal rift: development of the structural-genetic approach. Russian Geology and Geophysics 52 (3), 353–367. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.rgg.2011.02.008.

42. Seminsky K.Zh., Gladkov A.S., 1991. The new approach to studies of tectonic fracturing in fault zones. Geologiya i Geofizika (5), 130–140 (in Russian) [Семинский К.Ж., Гладков А.С. Новый подход к изучению тектонической трещиноватости в разрывных зонах // Геология и геофизика. 1991. № 5. С. 130–140].

43. Seminsky K.Zh., Kozhevnikov N.O., Cheremnykh A.V., Pospeeva E.V., Bobrov A.A., Olenchenko V.V., Tugarina M.A., Potapov V.V., Zaripov R.M., Cheremnykh A.S., 2013. Interblock zones in the crust of the southern regions of East Siberia: tec-tonophysical interpretation of geological and geophysical data. Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 4 (3), 203–278 (in Russian) [Семинский К.Ж., Кожевников Н.О., Черемных А.В., Поспеева Е.В., Бобров А.А., Оленченко В.В., Тугари-на М.А., Потапов В.В., Зарипов Р.М., Черемных А.С. 2013. Межблоковые зоны в земной коре юга Восточной Сибири: тектонофизическая интерпретация геолого-геофизических данных // Геодинамика и тектонофизика. 2013. Т. 4. № 3. С. 203–278]. http://dx.doi.org/10.5800/GT-2013-4-3-0099.

44. Seminsky К.Zh., Тugarina М.А. 2011. Results of comprehensive studies of the underground hydrosphere within the western shoulder of the Baikal rift (as exemplified by the Bayandai – Krestovsky Cape site). Geodynamics & Tectonophysics 2 (2), 126–144 (in Russian) [Семинский К.Ж., Тугарина М.А. Результаты комплексных исследований подземной гидросферы западного плеча Байкальского рифта (на примере участка п. Баяндай – м. Крестовский) // Геодинамика и тектонофизика. 2011. Т. 2. № 2. С. 126–144]. http://dx.doi.org/10.5800/ GT-2011-2-2-0037.

45. Sherman S.I., Dneprovsky Yu.I., 1989. Tectonic stress fields in the Baikal rift zone. Geotektonika (2), 101–112 (in Russian) [Шерман С.И., Днепровский Ю.И. Поля тектонических напряжений Байкальской рифтовой зоны // Геотектоника. 1989. № 2. С. 101–112].

46. Sherman S.I., Seminsky K.Zh., Bornyakov S.А. et al., 1994. Faulting in the Lithosphere. Compression Zones. Nauka, Novosibirsk, 262 p. (in Russian)[Шерман С.И., Семинский К.Ж., Борняков С.А. и др. Разломообразование в литосфере: зоны сжатия. Новосибирск: Наука, 1994. 262 с.].

47. Sklyarov E.V. (Ed.), 2005. Structural and Tectonic Correlation Across the Central Asia Orogenic Collage: North-Eastern segment (Guidebook and abstract volume of the Siberian Workshop IGCP-480). IES SB RAS, Irkutsk, 291 p.

48. Smekhov Е.М., 1961. Regularities in Development of Rock Fracturing and Fractured Reservoirs. Nedra, Leningrad, 118 p. (in Russian) [Смехов Е.М. Закономерности развития трещиноватости горных пород и трещинные коллекторы. Л.: Недра, 1961. 118 с.].

49. Smekhov Е.М. (Ed.), 1969. Methods of Studies of Rock Fracturing and Fractured Reservoirs of Oil and Gas. Nedra, Leningrad, 129 p. (in Russian) [Методика изучения трещиноватости горных пород и трещинных коллекторов нефти и газа / Ред. Е.М. Смехов. Л.: Недра, 1969. 129 с.].

50. Solonenko А.V., Solonenko N.V., Mel'nikova V.I., Koz'min B.M., Kuchai О.А., Sukhanova S.S., 1993. Stresses and displacements in earthquake foci in Siberia and Mongolia. In: Seismicity and seismic zoning of Northern Eurasia. Issue 1. IPE RAS, Moscow, p. 113–122 (in Russian) [Солоненко А.В., Солоненко Н.В., Мельникова В.И., Козьмин Б.М., Кучай О.А., Суханова С.С. Напряжения и подвижки в очагах землетрясений Сибири и Монголии // Сейсмичность и сейсмическое районирование Северной Евразии. Вып. 1. М.: ИФЗ РАН, 1993. С. 113–122].

51. Volfson F.I., Lukin L.I., 1960. Main Issues and Methods in Studies of Structures of Ore Fields and Deposits. Gosnauchtekhizdat, Moscow, 622 p. (in Russian) [Вольфсон Ф.И., Лукин Л.И. Основные вопросы и методы изучения структур рудных полей и месторождений. М.: Госнаучтехиздат, 1960. 622 с.].

52. Wibberley C.A.J., Yielding G., Di Toro G. 2008. Recent advances in e understanding of fault zone internal structure: a review. In: C.A.J. Wibberley, W. Kurz, J. Imber, R.E. Holdsworth, C. Collettini (Eds.), The internal structure of fault zones: implications for mechanical and fluid-flow properties. Geological Society of London, Special Publication, vol. 299, p. 5–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP299.2.

53. Zamaraev S.M., 1967. Marginal Structures of the Southern Part of the Siberian Platform. Nauka, Moscow, 248 p. (in Russian) [Замараев С.М. Краевые структуры южной части Сибирской платформы. М.: Наука, 1967. 248 с.].

54. Zamaraev S.М., Vasiliev Е.P., Mazukabzov А.М., Ruzhitch V.V., Ryazanov G.V., 1979. The Ratio of Ancient and Cenozoic Structures in the Baikal Rift Zone, Nauka, Moscow, 126 p. (in Russian) [Замараев С.М., Васильев Е.П., Мазукабзов А.М., Ружич В.В., Рязанов Г.В. Соотношение древней и кайнозойской структур в Байкальской рифтовой зоне. Новосибирск: Наука, 1979. 126 с.]